# Higher-ranked trait bounds
One of the more subtle concepts in trait resolution is *higher-ranked trait
bounds*. An example of such a bound is `for<'a> MyTrait<&'a isize>`.
Let's walk through how selection on higher-ranked trait references
works.
## Basic matching and placeholder leaks
Suppose we have a trait `Foo`:
```rust
trait Foo<X> {
fn foo(&self, x: X) { }
}
```
Let's say we have a function `want_hrtb` that wants a type which
implements `Foo<&'a isize>` for any `'a`:
```rust,ignore
fn want_hrtb<T>() where T : for<'a> Foo<&'a isize> { ... }
```
Now we have a struct `AnyInt` that implements `Foo<&'a isize>` for any
`'a`:
```rust,ignore
struct AnyInt;
impl<'a> Foo<&'a isize> for AnyInt { }
```
And the question is, does `AnyInt : for<'a> Foo<&'a isize>`? We want the
answer to be yes. The algorithm for figuring it out is closely related
to the subtyping for higher-ranked types (which is described [here][hrsubtype]
and also in a [paper by SPJ]. If you wish to understand higher-ranked
subtyping, we recommend you read the paper). There are a few parts:
1. Replace bound regions in the obligation with placeholders.
2. Match the impl against the [placeholder] obligation.
3. Check for _placeholder leaks_.
So let's work through our example.
1. The first thing we would do is to
replace the bound region in the obligation with a placeholder, yielding
`AnyInt : Foo<&'0 isize>` (here `'0` represents placeholder region #0).
Note that we now have no quantifiers;
in terms of the compiler type, this changes from a `ty::PolyTraitRef`
to a `TraitRef`. We would then create the `TraitRef` from the impl,
using fresh variables for it's bound regions (and thus getting
`Foo<&'$a isize>`, where `'$a` is the inference variable for `'a`).
2. Next
we relate the two trait refs, yielding a graph with the constraint
that `'0 == '$a`.
3. Finally, we check for placeholder "leaks" – a
leak is basically any attempt to relate a placeholder region to another
placeholder region, or to any region that pre-existed the impl match.
The leak check is done by searching from the placeholder region to find
the set of regions that it is related to in any way. This is called
the "taint" set. To pass the check, that set must consist *solely* of
itself and region variables from the impl. If the taint set includes
any other region, then the match is a failure. In this case, the taint
set for `'0` is `{'0, '$a}`, and hence the check will succeed.
Let's consider a failure case. Imagine we also have a struct
```rust,ignore
struct StaticInt;
impl Foo<&'static isize> for StaticInt;
```
We want the obligation `StaticInt : for<'a> Foo<&'a isize>` to be
considered unsatisfied. The check begins just as before. `'a` is
replaced with a placeholder `'0` and the impl trait reference is instantiated to
`Foo<&'static isize>`. When we relate those two, we get a constraint
like `'static == '0`. This means that the taint set for `'0` is `{'0,
'static}`, which fails the leak check.
**TODO**: This is because `'static` is not a region variable but is in the
taint set, right?
## Higher-ranked trait obligations
Once the basic matching is done, we get to another interesting topic:
how to deal with impl obligations. I'll work through a simple example
here. Imagine we have the traits `Foo` and `Bar` and an associated impl:
```rust
trait Foo<X> {
fn foo(&self, x: X) { }
}
trait Bar<X> {
fn bar(&self, x: X) { }
}
impl<X,F> Foo<X> for F
where F : Bar<X>
{
}
```
Now let's say we have an obligation `Baz: for<'a> Foo<&'a isize>` and we match
this impl. What obligation is generated as a result? We want to get
`Baz: for<'a> Bar<&'a isize>`, but how does that happen?
After the matching, we are in a position where we have a placeholder
substitution like `X => &'0 isize`. If we apply this substitution to the
impl obligations, we get `F : Bar<&'0 isize>`. Obviously this is not
directly usable because the placeholder region `'0` cannot leak out of
our computation.
What we do is to create an inverse mapping from the taint set of `'0`
back to the original bound region (`'a`, here) that `'0` resulted
from. (This is done in `higher_ranked::plug_leaks`). We know that the
leak check passed, so this taint set consists solely of the placeholder
region itself plus various intermediate region variables. We then walk
the trait-reference and convert every region in that taint set back to
a late-bound region, so in this case we'd wind up with
`Baz: for<'a> Bar<&'a isize>`.